al (2014) conducted a study to examine the use of skin lightening creams that contain hydroquinone, corticosteroids and mercury. The researcher confirmed that confidentiality would be maintained throughout the study. AL Qauhiz N (2010).Obesity among Saudi Female University Students: Dietary Habits and Health Behaviors. Follow us on @ScimagoJRScimago Lab, Copyright 2007-2022. This ongoing preoccupation with race and skin colour as part of an ethnic identity is clearly linked with the countrys historical roots and has, in turn, led to the institutional form of cherishing and celebrating any Arabic and Islamic roots. Westerhof W (2006) Toxicology and health risks of hydroquinone in skin lightening formulations. Data Source: Scopus, Metrics based on Scopus data as of April 2022, Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology, Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutics, Agricultural and Biological Sciences (miscellaneous), Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology (miscellaneous), Business, Management and Accounting (miscellaneous), Computer Graphics and Computer-Aided Design, Critical Care and Intensive Care Medicine, Earth and Planetary Sciences (miscellaneous), Ecology, Evolution, Behavior and Systematics, Economics, Econometrics and Finance (miscellaneous), Electronic, Optical and Magnetic Materials, Geotechnical Engineering and Engineering Geology, Immunology and Microbiology (miscellaneous), Management Science and Operations Research, Neuropsychology and Physiological Psychology, Organizational Behavior and Human Resource Management, Pediatrics, Perinatology and Child Health, Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutics (miscellaneous), Physical Therapy, Sports Therapy and Rehabilitation, Political Science and International Relations, Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health, Renewable Energy, Sustainability and the Environment, Tourism, Leisure and Hospitality Management, Ontario Health Technology Assessment Series, International Journal of Computer Science in Sport, International Journal of Nano and Biomaterials, International Journal of Bioinformatics Research and Applications, Journal of Biomechanical Science and Engineering, Recent Patents on Drug Delivery and Formulation, Critical Reviews in Biomedical Engineering, International Journal of Biology and Biomedical Engineering. All three beauty practices are commonly performed; and all carry high health risks. Hunter M (2002) if youre light youre alright light skin color as social capital for women of color. 
Unlike the idealisation of a slim figure (Stice, 1994; Thompson and Stice, 2004) and tanned skin that prevails in many modern Western societies (Phelan, 2002; Cafri et al., 2006), the dominant social perception of female physical attractiveness in many parts of Africa is to be largebodied, and to have skin that is light in colour (AL Qauhiz 2010; Yousif et. Authors such as Tove et al. All the interviews were translated and transcribed verbatim twice, by the researcher and by an independent professional translator. biomedical All the participants perceived its application as being unique and beautiful, and an important symbol not only of Sudanese society but also of being married: . Journal of Communication 62 (5):869887. 54 (2):245-8. Participant 7( aged 20 years), reported that . Prcic S, Matic A, Matic M, Petrovic A, Djuran V, Gajinov Z (2011) Henna tattoo contact dermatitis a report of four cases and brief review of the selected literature. biomedical Percutaneous absorption of bleaching products is enhanced as the products are used for long periods of time, on large body-surface areas and in hot, humid environments (Olumide et al., 2008). 
The interviews were read and re-read in order to generate initial ideas. Clinical Psychology Review, 14 (7): 633661. First is Islam, the dominant religion practised in Sudan for centuries. Braun V and Clarke V (2006) Using thematic analysis in psychology. This shows that awareness alone is not enough; knowing the health risk is, it seems, not a forceful preventive against these practices. reijo pera Winant H (2000) Race and Race Theory. A numerical code was assigned to each interview. [Online]. 
Drawing on relevant literature, past knowledge and the experience of the research team, an interview schedule and aids were developed and piloted. This has led to a preoccupation among Sudanese women with their appearance, and the role this plays as a tool to achieve security, respect and social acceptance. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 21 (2): 173206. Of particular importance were scarification, as it reflected the tribal connections, and body size, with one respondent explaining: In the past, people considered obese and fat girls as beautiful. Moreover, there had been a simplicity in the beauty practices performed, as (Participant 2, aged 20 years) reflected: , In response to questions on modern-day notions of beauty, all the participants were aware that having light skin and being full-figured were very important; it was also important for married women to decorate their bodies with black henna. Several reasons were given as to the importance of a large body size. (eds.) 47 (4 ): 344-53. Fabos A (2008) Resisting Blackness Muslim Arab Sudanese in the Diaspora. The approach to data analysis was fundamentally inductive and interpretative, and drew on the six phases of thematic analysis that were developed by Braun and Clarke (2006), who claim that such analysis can be understood as a valuable and flexible approach to research and an appropriate tool for the rich and detailed interpretation of data. (2006) suggest that personal preferences in attractiveness are flexible, and can change with exposure to different environments and situations. Peregrino P, Moreno V, Miranda V, Rubio D, Leal O (2011) Mercury levels in locally manufactured Mexican skin-lightening creams. Additional themes addressed the removal of the adverse effects of extended skin bleaching; to satisfy ones partner and/or attract male friends; to satisfy and impress peers. This class evaluation is based on the students ability to afford to go to university, since, regardless of whether it is a private or a public university, a certain level of financial standing is needed. The interviews lasted between 60 and 140 minutes, took place in a room in the university where the participant was a student, and were conducted in Arabic, the first language of all the women. weidman All the women, however, were Sudanese, having been born and raised in Sudan. A short demographic questionnaire was also used to capture age, university, faculty and address; this was administered prior to the start of each interview. The translation work between Arabic and English may have impacted on the data collection and analysis. 7 (1): 124128. A qualitative methodology was chosen in order to capture rich data about the participants views, perceptions and lived experiences. The findings are presented as three interrelated themes: In response to general questions on the dominant perceptions of beauty in Sudan, many of the participants noted the changing nature of what is considered beautiful and acceptable in Sudanese society. Second, and linked closely to this, is the fact that in Sudan, Islamic-Arabic culture forms the basis of Sudanese national identity and is deeply ingrained within its system of social and political power (Fabos, 2008). New York: Guilford Press: 5179. Thompson JK, Stice E (2004) 'Thin-ideal internalization: Mounting evidence for a new risk factor for body-image disturbance and eating pathology', in Oltmanns T.F. The majority of participants felt that in Sudanese society, there was a great emphasis on physical attractiveness, with less regard for non-physical and personality qualities, such as a womans education, mental capacities and strengths. Grogan S (2008) Body image: understanding body dissatisfaction in men, women, and children. Accordingly, the dynamic process of conceptualising female physical beauty in Sudan, the beautification practices and the methods used to achieve beauty have changed and evolved over time. With the move away from less harsh, traditional methods, this has led to the widespread use of chemicals and skin-bleaching products. This is evident in the switch from natural henna to black henna, the use of Dokhan now being complemented with a wide range of skin-lightening products, and the increased use of pills and insulin injections to supplement the gaining of weight through a sedentary life style and a high-calorie diet. For instance, face scarifying and lip tattooing do not feature in the modern Sudanese female-body ideal; hence, these beauty rituals are practised less and less, although they remain important in the history of Sudan. memoriam cancer Third, the domination of Muslim-Arab Sudanese identity has given rise to hierarchical categories undermining other Sudanese ethnic groups (Kirwan et al., 2002). Ethnicity & Disease. Ghana Med J. Black henna is extremely popular among Sudanese women (Prcic, 2011), with most making use of black henna produced by mixing natural henna with other substances such as a paraphenylenediamine (PPD). biomedical 
These factors are of importance to any behavioural-change approaches seeking to address the health-related problems associated with these beauty practices. New York. Journal of the European Academy of Dermatology and Venereology. 35 (2):218237. (2012) Mercury content in low cost skin lightening cream products. Women in some parts of the world choose or are forced to gain weight in order to conform to feminine beauty parameters idealised by society (Kiawi et al., 2006; Batnitzky, 2011; Benkeser, et al 2012); in this study, induced weight gain refers to methods used to accomplish a societally desirable body weight. The paper explores these students views of dominant notions of beauty, and their own rituals and practices. The last practice described by the women was that of skin lightening. 13 (3):236-41. 
In the past, methods used to achieve beauty standards were simple and relied more on natural resources. Throughout this process, special attention was paid to recognising and seeking to interpret the social context within which the participants experiences and thoughts were rooted. Thereafter, snowball sampling allowed each participant to nominate one other potential participant. Conflicts and Politics of Identity in Sudan. Certain Arabic words have no exact English equivalent. As in the past, there were other features such as long hair, a small nose, medium height (being neither too short nor too tall), wide eyes and a rounded, well-proportioned face that were seen to further enhance beauty: . Also participants had the right not to answer any question. A limitation of the sample was the fact that although the views emerging from the interviews did not indicate variations linked to their different religious beliefs, much more work is needed to explore the role of such beliefs in beauty practices. 
From birth, a girl is prepared to be a wife, tending to be taught cooking skills and the importance of projecting an ideal version of womanhood in order to secure a husband and maintain the social standing of her family. Page Last Updated on 02/26/2015, Evaluation of a Health Education Intervention to Improve Knowledge, Skills, Behavioral Intentions and Resources Associated with Preventable Determinants of Infant Mortality, Impact of Medicare Part D on Racial and Ethnic Minorities, China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI), Social care institute for Excellence(SCIE), Directory of Research Journal Indexing (DRJI), Sudan, socio-cultural, body image, beauty practices, health risks, qualitative research. However, clear changes have taken place in the methods used to gain weight, and to lighten and decorate the skin. 
In rural areas, there remained an appreciation of fatness as a sign of female beauty, and many related traditional methods were still in use. Data Source: Scopus, Metrics based on Scopus data as of April 2022, Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology, Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutics, Agricultural and Biological Sciences (miscellaneous), Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology (miscellaneous), Business, Management and Accounting (miscellaneous), Computer Graphics and Computer-Aided Design, Critical Care and Intensive Care Medicine, Earth and Planetary Sciences (miscellaneous), Ecology, Evolution, Behavior and Systematics, Economics, Econometrics and Finance (miscellaneous), Electronic, Optical and Magnetic Materials, Geotechnical Engineering and Engineering Geology, Immunology and Microbiology (miscellaneous), Management Science and Operations Research, Neuropsychology and Physiological Psychology, Organizational Behavior and Human Resource Management, Pediatrics, Perinatology and Child Health, Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutics (miscellaneous), Physical Therapy, Sports Therapy and Rehabilitation, Political Science and International Relations, Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health, Renewable Energy, Sustainability and the Environment, Tourism, Leisure and Hospitality Management, Egyptian Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences, Synthesis Lectures on Biomedical Engineering, Transactions of Japanese Society for Medical and Biological Engineering, Assistive Technology Outcomes and Benefits, International Journal of Nano and Biomaterials, BMJ Surgery, Interventions, and Health Technologies, International Journal of Biology and Biomedical Engineering, Journal of Biomedical Photonics and Engineering, International Journal of Bioinformatics Research and Applications, Human Factors and Mechanical Engineering for Defense and Safety, Journal of Biomechanical Science and Engineering, Shengwu Yixue Gongchengxue Zazhi/Journal of Biomedical Engineering, Biomedical Instrumentation and Technology, International Journal of Medical Engineering and Informatics, Journal of Long-Term Effects of Medical Implants, Chinese Journal of Biomedical Engineering, Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology News. The practices of a number of participants and their friends highlight this point: The process aims not only to attain a lighter skin colour but also to avoid tanning or the skin becoming darker. Participants came from Christian and Muslim families and, regardless of their origin, were all city-residents. 
The methods most commonly used by the participants were the cheapest, most widely available and accessible: There are these tubes; people use these creams all the time. Lewis K, Robkin N, Karie Gaska K, Njoki L (2011) Investigating Motivations for Womens Skin Bleaching in Tanzania. These authors concluded that the use of skin bleaching creams among these girls was associated with high levels of ignorance. In order to gain a broad range of views and experiences, participants were recruited from different faculties. Some participants used a mixture of a number of creams made by shopkeepers; these comprised unidentified creams with unknown adverse effects: , It is important to note that not all the participants used skin-lightening products. 16 (2):503-9. In Sudan, there is a long-established practice of applying black-henna skin decoration. These creams were the most commonly applied to the body and combined with the use of soaps and tablets. al, 2014; Peregrino, et al, 2011), hydroquinone (Amponsah , et al 2014) and corticosteroids (Gaudianoa et al., 2010). Journal of Cosmetic Dermatology.
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